Body
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_gravity_control_propulsion_research
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitoelectromagnetism
http://www.rexresearch.com/hooper/hooper1.htm
https://www.wired.com/1998/03/antigravity/
When we look back in History at the negative ionization phenomenon which
dates back to the old Edison DC grid energizing problems with corona out
cropping before a current began in the transmission line. Avalanche
phenomenon.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend_discharge
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_avalanche
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge Please pay particular
attention to the difference in Positive Ionization and the Negative
Ionization. The Ion Wind and avalanche phenomenon is only present in
the Negative plasma.
See C33 attached
See DC Ion attached
See Cage attached
2.1.3.1 Negative DC Corona Processes
When the stressed conductor is at a negative potential, electron
avalanches are
initiated at the cathode and develop in a continuously decreasing field
towards the
anode. Free electrons which, can move much faster than ions in an
applied field, are
thus concentrated at the tip of the avalanche. A concentration of
positive ions thus
forms in the region of the gap between the cathode and the boundary
surface So [4,
67]. This is seen in figure 2.6.
\
\
\ ,
I' () '--____ -=:..
Figure 2.6: Electron Avalanche at the Cathode [4, pg 68]
As can be seen from figure 2.6 free electrons continue to migrate across
the gap.
Beyond the surface So the free electrons quickly attach themselves to
the oxygen
molecules to form negative ions, which due to their low drift velocity
accumulate in
the gap beyond So. Once the development of the first electron avalanche
has been
completed there are two ion space charges in the gap as shown in figure 2.7.
E
E
I
J
,
\ , \ -
~"-~ +---- \. . \; - - ~
.. _;': : -- :1-:.',:::-
I
I
I
ED '---_ _ ---'---=:::... I
Figure 2.7: Space Charge Following Completion of the First Avalanche [4,
pg 68]
l3
This page is an introduction to the charge separation that occurs in
the micro vortex and possible connection to the AG phenomenon.
This was the meeting at Wright Patterson AFB that kicked off the
Research into Anti-gravity in 1956.
ELECTROGRAVITIC SYSTEMS
An examination of electrostatic motion,
dynamic counterbary and barycentric control.
TL
565
A9
Bar Code: 3 1401 00034 5879
Due dates omitted.
Shield with Logo:
AF WRIGHT AERONAUTICAL LABORATORIES
TECHNICAL LIBRARY
Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, Ohio 45433
Inner Cover:
ELECTROGRAVITICS SYSTEMS
An examination of electrostatic motion,
dynamic counterbary and barycentric control.
Prepared by
Gravity Research Group
Aviation Studies (International) Limited, London
29-31 Cheval Place. Knightsbridge
LONDON S.W. 7 England
Report GRG 013/56 February 1956
TL 565 A9
CONTENTS
Page
Introductory Notes...............1
Discussion.......................3
Conclusions.....................18
APPENDIX
I - Aviation Report extracts....21
I - Electrostatic Patents.......33
* * *
PROPERTY OF USAF
-1-
ELECTROGRAVITICS SYSTEMS
An examination of electrostatic motion, dynamic
counterbary and barycentric control
It has been accepted as axiomatic that the way to offset the
effects of gravity is to use a lifting surface and considerable
molecular energy to produce a continously applied force that,
for a limited period of time, can remain greater than the effects
of gravitational attraction.The original invention of the glider,
and evolution of the briefly self-sustaining glider, at the turn of
the century led to progressive advances in power and knowledge.
This has been directed to refining the classic Wright Brothers'
approach.Aircraft design is still fundamentally as the Wrights
adumbrated it, with wings, body, tails, moving or flapping
controls, landing gear and so forth.The Wright biplane was a
powered glider, and all subsequent aircraft, including the
supersonic jets of the nineteen-fifties are also powered gliders.
Only one fundamentally different flying principle has so far been
adopted with varying degrees of success.It is the rotating wing
aircraft that has led to the jet lifters and vertical pushers,
coleopters, ducted fans and lift induction turbine propulsion
systems.
But during these decades there was always the possibility
of making efforts to discover the nature of gravity from cosmic
or quantum theory, investigation and observation, with a view
to discerning the physical properties of aviation's enemy.
-2-
It has seemed to Aviation Studies that for some time
insufficient attention has been directed to this kind of research.
If it were successful such developments would change the
concept of sustentation, and confer upon a vehicle qualities
that woul now be regarded as the ultimate in aviation.
This report summarizes in simple form the work that has
been done and is being done in the new field of electrogravitics.
It also outlines the various possible lines of research into the
nature and constituent matter of gravity, and how it has changed
from Newton to Einstein to the modern Hlavaty concept of
gravity as an electromagnetic force that may be controlled like
a light wave.
The report also contains an outline of opinions on the
feasibility of different electrogravitics systems and there is
reference to some of the barycentric control and electrostatic
rigs in operation.
Also included is a list of references to electrogravitics in
successive Aviation Reports since a drive was started by
Aviation Studies (International) Limited to suggest to aviation
business eighteen months ago that the rewards of success are
too far-reaching to be overlooked, especially in view of the
hopeful judgement of the most authoritative voice in micro-
physics.Also listed are some relevant patents on electrostatics
and electrostatic generators in the United States, United Kingdom
and France.
Gravity Research Group
---------------------
25 February 1956
-3-
DISCUSSION
Electrogravitics might be described as a synthesis of
electrostatic energy used for propulsion - either vertical propulsion
or horizontal or both - and gravitics, or dynamic counterbary, in
which energy is also used to set up a local gravitational force
independent of the earth's.
Electrostatic energy for propulsion has been predicted as a
possible means of propulsion in space when the thrust from a neutron
motor or ion motor would be sufficient in a dragless environment
to produce astronomical velocities.But the ion motor is not
strictly a part of the science of electrogravitics, since barycentric
control in an electrogravitics systems is envisaged for a vehicle
operating within the earth's environment and it is not seen
initially for space application.Probably large scale space opera-
tions would have to await the full development of electrogravitics
to enable large pieces of equipment to be moved out of the region
of the earth's strongest gravity effects.So, though electrostatic
motors were thought of in 1925, electrogravitics had its birth after
the War, when Townsend Brown sought to improve on the various
proposals that then existed for electrostatic motors sufficiently to
produce some visible manifestation of sustained motion.Whereas
earlier electrostatic tests were essentially pure research
Brown's rigs were aimed from the outset at producing a flying
article.As a private venture he produced evidence of motion using
condensers in a couple of saucers suspended by arms rotating
round a central tower with input running down the arms.The
massive-k situation was summarized subsequently in a report,
Project Winterhaven, in 1952.Using the data some conclusions
were arrived at that might be expected from ten or more years of
-4-
intensive development - similar to that, for instance, applied to
the turbine engine.Using a number of assumptions as to the
nature of gravity, the report postulated a saucer as the basis of
a possible interceptor with Mach 3 capability.Creation of a
local gravitational system would confer upon the fighter the
sharp-edged changes of direction typical of motion in space.
The essence of electrogravitics thrust is the use of a very
strong positive charge on one side of the vehicle and a negative
on the other.The core of the motor is a condenser and the
ability of the condenser to hold its charge (the k-number) is the
yardstick of performance.With air as 1, current dielectrical
materials can yield 6 and use of <STRONG>barium</STRONG> aluminate can raise
this considerably, <STRONG>barium</STRONG> titanium oxide (a baked
ceramic) can
offer 6,000 and there is promise of 30,000, which would be
sufficient for supersonic speed.
The original Brown rig produced 30 fps on a voltage of
around 50,000 and a small amount of current in the
milliamp range.There was no detailed explanation of gravity
in Project Winterhaven, but it was assumed that particle
dualism in the subatomic structure of gravity would coincide
in its effect with the issuing stream of electrons from the
electrostatic energy source to produce counterbary.The Brown
work probably remains a realistic approach to the practical
realization of electrostatic propulsion and sustentation.What-
ever may be discovered by the Gravity Research Foundation of
New Boston a complete understanding and synthetic reproduction
of gravity is not essential for limited success.The electro-
gravitics saucer can perform the function of a classic lifting
surface - it produces a pushing effect on the under surface and
a suction effect on the upper, but, unlike an airfoil, it does not
require a flow of air to produce the effect.
-5-
First attempts at electrogravitics are unlikely to produce
counterbary, but may lead to development of an electrostatic
VTOL vehicle.Even in its development form this might be an
advance on the molecular heat engine in its capabilities.But
hopes in the new science depend on an understanding of the
source and matter of gravity.It is fortuitous that lift can be
produced in the traditional fashion and if an understanding of
gravity remains beyond full practical control, electrostatic lift
might be an adjunct of some significance to modern thrust
producers.Research into electrostatics could prove beneficial
to turbine development, and heat engines in general, in view of
the usable electron potential round the periphery of any flame.
Materials for electrogravitics and especially the development
of commercial quantities of high-k material is another dividend
to be obtained from electrostatic research even if it produces no
counterbary.This is a line of development that Aviation Studies'
Gravity Research Group is following.
One of the interesting aspects of electrogravitics is that a
breakthrough in almost any part of the broad front of general
research on the intranuclear processes may be translated into
a meaningful advance towards the feasibility of electrogravitics
systems.This demands constant monitoring in the most
likely areas of the physics of high energy sub-nuclear particles.
It is difficult to be overoptimistic about the prospects of gaining
so complete a grasp of gravity while the world's physicists are
still engaged in a study of fundamental particles - that is to say
those that cannot be broken down any more.Fundamental particles
are still being discovered - the most recent was the Segre-
Chamberlain-Wiegand attachment ot the bevatron, which was
used to isolate the missing anti-proton, which must - or should
be presumed to - exist according to Dirac's theory of the electron.
-6-
Much of the accepted mathematics of particles would be wrong
if the anti-proton was proved to be non-existent.Earlier
Eddington has listed the fundamental particles as:-
e The charge of an electron.
m the mass of an electron.
M the mass of a proton.
h Planck's contant
c The velocity of light.
G The constant of gravitation, and
L The cosmological constant
It is generally held that no one of these can be inferred from
the others.But electrons may well disappear from among the
fundamental particles, though, as Russell says, it is likely that
e and m will survive.The constants are much more established
than the interpretation of them and are among the most solid of
achievements in modern physics.
* * *
Gravity may be defined as a small scale departure from
Euclidean space in the general theory of relativity.The
gravitational constant is one of four dimensionless constants:
first, the mass relation of the nucleon and electron.Second is
e^2/hc, third, the Compton wavelength of the proton, and fourth
is the gravitational constant, which is the ratio of the electrostatic
-7-
to the gravitational attraction between the electron and the
proton.
One of the stumbling blocks in electrogravitics is the
absence of any satisfacotry theory linking these four dimension-
less quantities.Of the four, moreover, gravity is decidedly the
most complex, since any explanation would have to satisfy both
cosmic and quantum relations more acceptably and intelligibly even
than in the unified field theory.A gravitational constant of
around 10^-30 has emerged from quantum research and this has
been used as a tool for finding theories that could link the two
relations.This work is now in full progress, and developments
have to be watched for the aviation angle.Hitherto Dirac,
Eddington, Jordan and others have produced differences in theory
that are too wide to be accepted as consistent.It means therefore
that (i) without a cosmological basis, and (ii) with an imprecise
quantum basis and (iii) a vague hypothesis on the interaction,
much remains still to be discovered.Indeed some say that a
single interacting theory to link up the dimensionless constants
is one of three major unresolved basic problems of physics.
The other two main problems are the extension of quantum theory
and a more detailed knowledge of the fundamental particles.
All this is some distance from Newton, who saw gravity as
a force acting on a body from a distance, leading to the tendency
of bodies to accelerate towards each other.He allied this
assumption with Euclidean geometry, and time was assumed as
uniform and acted independently of space.Bodies and particles
in space normally moved uniformly in straight lines according
to Newton, and to account for the way they sometimes do not do
so, he used the idea of a force of gravity acting at a distance,
in which particles of matter cause in others an acceleration
proportional to their mass, and inversely proportional to the
-8-
square of the distance between them.
But Einstein showed how the principle of least action, or
the so-called cosmic laziness means that particles, on the
contrary, follow the easiest path along geodesic lines and as a
result they get readily absorbed into space-time.So was born
non-linear physics.The classic example of non-linear physics
is the experiment in bombarding a screen with two slits.When
both slits are open particles going through are not the sum of
the two individually but follows a non-linear equation.This
leads on to wave-particle dualism and that in turn to the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle in which an increase in accuracy
in measurement of one physical quantity means decreasing
accuracy in measuring the other.If time is measured accurately
energy calculations will be in error; the more accurate the
position of a particle is established the less certain the velocity
will be; and so on.This basic principle of the acausality of
microphysics affects the study of gravity in the special and
general theories of relativity.Lack of pictoral image in the
quantum physics of this interrelationship is a difficulty at the
outset for those whose minds remain obstinately Euclidean.
In the special theory of relativity, space-time is seen only
as an undefined interval which can be defined in any way that is
convenient and the Newtonian idea of persistent particles in
motion to explain gravity cannot be accepted.It must be seen
rather as a synthesis of forces in a four dimensional continuum,
three to establish the position and one the time.The general
theory of relativity that followed a decade later was a
geometrical explanation of gravitation in which bodies take the
geodesic path through space-time.In turn this means that
instead of the idea of a force acting at a distance it is assumed
that space, time, radiation and particles are linked and
variations in them from gravity are due rather to the nature of
space.
-9-
Thus gravity of a body such as the earth, instead of pulling
object towards it as Newton postulated, is adjusting the
characteristics of space and, it may be inferred, the quantum
mechanics of space in the vicinity of the gravitational force.
Electrogravitics aims at correcting this adjustment to put
matter, so to speak, 'at rest'.
* * *
One of the difficulties in 1954 and 1955 was to get aviation
to take electrogravitics seriously.The name alone was enough
to put people off.However, in the trade much progress has
been made and now most major companies in the United States
are interested in counterbary.Groups are being organised to
study electrostatic and electromagnetic phenomena.Most of
industry's leaders have made some reference to it.Douglas
has now stated that it has counterbary on its work agenda but
does not expect results yet awhile.Hiller has referred to new
forms of flying platform, Glenn Martin say gravity control could
be achieved in six years, but they add that it would entail a
Manhattan District type of effort to bring it about.Sikorsky,
one of the pioneers, more or less agrees with the Douglas verdict
and says that gravity is tangible and formidable, but there must
be a physical carrier for this immense trans-spatial force.This
implies that where a physical manifestation exists, a physical
device and be developed for creating a similar force moving in
the opposite direction to cancel it.Clarke Electronics state
thay have a rig, and add that in their view the source of
gravity's force will be understood sooner than some people
think.General Electric is working on the use of electronic rigs
designed to make adjustments to gravity - this line of attack
has the advantage of using rigs already in existence for other
defence work.Bell also has an experimental rig intended, as
-10-
the company puts it, to cancel out gravity, and Lawrence Bell
has said he is convinced that practical hardware will emerge
from current programs.Grover Leoning is certain that what
he referred to as an electro-magnetic contra-gravity mechanism
will be developed for practical use.Convair is extensively
committed to the work with several rigs.Lear Inc., autopilot
and electronic engineers have a division of the company working
on gravity research and so also has the Sperry division of
Sperry-Rand.This list embraces most of the U.S. aircraft
industry.The remainder, Curtiss-Wright, Lockheed, Boeing
and North American have not yet declared themselves, but all
these four are known to be in various stages of study with and
without rigs.
In addition, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is
working on gravity, the Gravity Research Foundation of New
Boston, the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, the
CalTech Radiation Laboratory, Princeton University and the
University of North Carolina are all active in gravity.Glenn
L. Martin is setting up a Research Institute for Advanced Study
which has a small staff working on gravity research with the
unified field theory and this group is committed to extensive
programs of applied research.Many others are also known to
be studying gravity, some are known also to be planning
a general expansion in this field, such as the proposed
Institute for Pure Physics at the University of North Carolina.
A certain amount of work is also going on in Europe.One
of the French nationalized constructors and one company outside
the nationalized elements have been making preliminary studies,
and a little company money has in one case actually been
committed.Some work is also going on in Britain where rigs
are now in existence.Most of it is private tenure work, such
-11-
as that being done by Ed Hull, a colleague of Townsend Brown
who, as much as anybody, introduced Europe to electrogravitics.
Aviation Studies' Gravity Research Group is doing some work,
mainly on k studies, and is sponsoring dielectric investigations.
One Swedish company and two Canadian companies have
been making studies, and quite recently the Germans have
woken up to the possibilities.Several of the companies have
started digging out some of the early German papers on wave
physics.They are almost certain to plan a gravitics program.
Curiously enough the Germans during the war paid no attention
to electrogravitics.This is one line of advance that they did
not pioneer in any way and is still basically a U.S. creation.
Townsend Brown in electrogravitics is the equivalent of Frank
Whittle in gas turbines.This German overlooking of
electrostatics is even more surprising when it is remembered
how astonishingly advanced and prescient the Germans were in
nuclear research.(The modern theory of making thermonuclear
weapons without plutonium fission initiators returns to the original
German idea that was dismissed, even ridiculed.The Germans
never went very far with fission, indeed they doubted that this
chain would ever be made to work.)The German air industry,
still in the embryo stage, has included electrogravitics among
the subjects it intends to examine when establishing the policy
that the individual companies will adopt after the present early
stage of foreign licence has enabled industry to get abreast
of the other countries in aircraft development.
* * *
It is impossible to read through this summary of the
widening efforts being made to understand the nature of matter
of gravity without sharing the hope that many groups now have,
of major theoretical breakthroughs occurring before very long.
-12-
Experience in nucleonics has shown that when attempts to win
knowledge on this scale are made, advances are soon seen.
There are a number of elements in industry, and some
managements, who see gravity as a problem for later genera-
tions.Many see nothing in it all and they might be right.But as
said earlier, if Dr. Vaclav Hlavaty thinks gravity is
potentially controllable that surely should be justification
enough, and indeed inspiration, for physicists to apply their
minds and for management to take a risk.Hlavaty is the only
man who thinks he can see a way of doing the mathematics to
demonstrate Einstein's unified field theory - something that
Einstein himself said was beyond him.Relativity and the unified
field theory go to the root of electrogravitics and the shifts
in thinking, the hopes and fears, and a measure of progress is
to be obtained only in the last resort from men of this stature.
Major theoretical breakthroughs to discover the sources
of gravity will be made by the most advanced intellects using
the most advanced research tools.Aviation's role is therefore
to impress upon physicists of this calibre with the urgency of
the matter and to aid them with statistical and peripheral
investigations that will help to clarify the background to the
central mathematics and physical puzzles.Aviation could also
assist by recruiting some of these men as advisers.Convair has
taken the initiative with its recently established panel of advisers
on nuclear projects, which include Dr. Edward Teller of the
University of California.At the same time much can be done in
development of laboratory rigs, condenser research and dielectric
development, which do not require anything like the same
cerebral capacity to get results and make a practical contribution.
As gravity is likely to be linked with the new particles, only
the highest powered particle accelerators are likely to be of use
-13-
in further fundamental knowledge.The country with the biggest
tools of this kind is in the best position to examine the
characteristics of the particles and from these countries the
greatest advances seem most likely.
Though the United States has the biggest of the bevatrons -
the Berkeley bevatron is 6.2 bev - the Russians have a 10 bev
accelerator in construction which, when it is completed, will
be the world's largest.At Brookhaven a 25 bev instrument is
in development which, in turn, will be the biggest.Other
countries without comparable facilities are of course at a
great disadvantage from the outset in the contest to discover the
explanations of gravity.Electrogravitics, moreover, unfortunately
competes with nuclear studies for its facilities.The clearest
thinking brains are bound to be attracted to locations where the
most extensive laboratory equipment exists.So, one way and
another, results are most likely to come from the major
countries with the biggest undertakings.Thus the nuclear
facilities have a direct bearing on the scope for electrogravitics
work.
The OEEC report in January made the following points:-
The U.S. has six to eight entirely different types of reactor in
operation and many more under construction.Europe has now
two different types in service.
The U.S. has about 30 research reactors plus four in Britain,
two in France.
The U.S. has two nuclear-powered marine engines.Europe has
none, but the U.K. is building one.
Isotope separation plants for the enrichment of uranium in
the U.S. are roughly 11 times larger than the European
plant in Britain.
Europe's only heavy water plant (in Norway) produces somewhat
less than one-twentieth of American output.
In 1955 the number of technicians employed in nuclear energy
work in the U.S. was about 15,000; there are about 5,000 in
Britain, 1,800 in France, and about 1,000 in the rest of
Europe.But the working party says that pessimistic conclusions
should not be drawn from these comparisons.European nuclear
energy effort is evenly divided at the moment, but some
countries have notable achievements to their credit and important
developments in prospect.The main reason for optimism is
that, taken as a whole, "Europe's present nuclear effort falls
very far short of its industrial potential".
Though gravity research, such as there has been of it,
has been unclassified, new principles and information gained
from the nuclear research facilities that have a vehicle application
is expected to be withheld.
The heart of the problem to understanding gravity is likely
to prove to be the way in which the very high energy sub-nuclear
particles convert something, whatever it is, continuously and
automatically into the tremendous nuclear and electromagnetic
forces.Once this key is understood, attention can later be
directed to finding laboratory means of duplicating the process
and reversing its force lines in some local environment and
returning the energy to itself to produce counterbary.Looking
beyond it seems possible that gravitation will be shown to be a
part of the universal electro-magnetic processes and controlled
-15-
in the same way as a light wave or radio wave.This is a synthesis
of the Einstein and Hlavaty concepts.Hence it follows that though
in its initial form the mechanical processes for countering
gravity may initially be massive to deal with the massive forces
involved, eventually this could be expected to form some central
power generation unit.Barycentric control in some required
quantity could be passed over a distance by a form of radio
wave.The prime energy source to energise the waves would
of course be nuclear in its origins.
It is difficult to say which lines of detailed development
being processed in the immediate future is more likely to yield
significant results.Perhaps the three most promising are:
first, the new attempt by the team of men led by Chamberlain
working with the Berkeley bevatron to find the anti-neutron,
and to identify more of the characteristics of the anti-proton*
and each of the string of high energy particles that have been
discovered during recent operations at 6.2 bev.
A second line of approach is the United States National
Bureau of Standards program to pin down with greater accuracy
the acceleration values of gravity.The presently accepted figure
___________________________________________________________
*The reaction is as follows:protons are accelerated to 6.2 bev,
and directed at a target of copper.When the proton projectile
hits a neutron in one of the copper atoms the following emerge:
the two original particles (the projectile and the struck neutron)
and a new pair of particles, a proton and anti-proton.The
anti-proton continues briefly until it hits another proton, then
both disappear and decay into mesons.
___________________________________________________________
-16-
of 32.174 feet per second per second is known to be not
comprehensive, though it has been sufficiently accurte
for the limited needs of industry hitherto.The NBS program
aims at re-determining the strength of gravity to within one
part of a million. The present method thas been to hold a ball
16 feet up and chart the elapsed time of descent with electronic
measuring equipment.The new program is based on the old, but
with this exceptional degree of accuracy it is naturally immensely
more difficult and is expected to take 3 years.
A third promising line is the new technique of measuring
high energy particles in motion that was started by the
University of California last year.This involves passing
cosmic rays through a chamber containing a mixture of gas,
alcohol and water vapour.This creates charged atoms, or
positive ions, by knocking electrons off the gas molecules.A
sudden expansion of the chamber results in a condensation of
water droplets along the track which can be plotted on a
photographic plate.This method makes it easier to assess the
energy of particles and to distinguish one from the other.It
also helps to establish the characteristics of the different
types of particles.The relationship between these high energy
particles, and their origin, and characteristics, have a bearing
on electrogravitics in general.
So much of what has to be discovered as a necessary
preliminary to gravity is of no practical use by itself.There is
no conceivable use, for instance, for the anti-proton, yet its
discovery even at a cost of $9-million is essential to check the
mathematics of the fundamental components of matter.Similarly
it is necessary to check that all the nuclear ghosts that have been
postulated theoretically do in fact exist.It is not, moreover,
sufficient, as in the past, only to observe the particles by
-17-
radiation counters.In each instance a mechanical maze has to
be devised and attached to a particle accelerator to trap only
the particle concerned.Each discovery becomes a wedge for
a deeper probe of the nucleus.Many of the particles of very high
energy have only a fleeting existence and collisions that give
rise to them from bevatron
--
ZE [email protected] +351 53 22244ZarSoft Corporation
"Reality is that which, when you stop believing in it, doesn't go
away."
Philip K. Dick
</PRE>
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